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动词不定式用法
不定式在句子中可做主语、宾语、表语、定语、状语和宾语补语。
1)不定式做主语一般表示具体的某次动作。
【例如】
To complete the 30storied building in one year was quite a difficult task.
To do that implies taking responsibility.
当主语较长，谓语较短时，常用it做形式主语，而将不定式放到谓语的后面。
【例如】
It is important for modern young people to master at least two foreign languages.
It做形式主语，不定式放在谓语动词之后常用于下列结构中：
a) It is＋形容词(easy, important, difficult, foolish, inconvenient, unnecessary, right, wrong...)＋( for/of sb.)＋不定式
【例如】
It is essential to reserve a table in advance of Christmas Eve.
It is hard to put my hopes into swords.
It is not easy to catch fish with your hands only.
It is important for us young people to learn English and master it.
b) It is＋名词(a pleasure, a pity, a pleasant thing, ones duty, an honor, a shame, a crime, no easy job...)＋不定式
It is a sheer waste of time to read that kind of trash.
It is a pity to have to go without her.
It is a glorious death to die for the people.
c) It takes (sb.) some time (hours, months, days, a lot of time, patience...)＋不定式
It takes me three hours to learn English each day.
It took them half the night to get home in the snow.
2)不定式作表语不定式作表语常表示将来的动作，主语常常是表示意向、打算、计划的词，如wish, idea, task, purpose, duty, job等。
【例如】
The most important thing for ones health is to have plenty of exercise.
My chief purpose has been to point out the difficulties of the matter.
The purpose of the organization is to greet all new comers to the city and to provide them with any necessary information.
What I wanted was to get the work done as quickly as possible.
3)不定式作宾语不定式常在下列动词后面作宾语： afford,agree,apply,arrange,ask,attempt,beg, begin,care,choose,claim,consent,demand,decide,desire,determine,expect,fail,hope,hesitate,hate,intend,learn,like,manage,mean,neglect,offer,plan,prepare pretend,promise,refuse,resolve,seek,tend,threaten,want等。
【例如】
I like to go out for walks in the warm sunshine in spring.
My mother hates to move from place to place, for she feels tired.I decide to work hard and get doctors degree.
The room is designed to be my study, but now it has to be used as a bedroom for the children.
She failed to finish the assignment in time, and she was worried about it.
There is a man at the reception desk who seems very angry and I think he means( )trouble. (CET-4 1997, 1)
A) making
B) to make
C) to have made
D)shavingsmade
mean后面一般加不定式，所以A和D可以排除。根据句意，他看起来非常生气，他想找麻烦，不定式的动作还没有实施，应用一般式，因此答案为B。不定式作宾语还常用在下面结构中；主语＋动词＋it＋形容词＋不定式。
【例如】
We found it impossible to get everything ready in time. I think it important to learn English well in college.使用这种句型的常见动词有：believe, consider, declare, feel, find, guess, imagine, prove, realize, suppose, think,等。
4)"whword＋不定式"结构不定式前加一个疑问代词(what, which, who, whom, whose)或疑问副词(where, when, how, why)，以及连词whether构成特殊的不定式短语，其作用相当于一个从句，这样的不定式短语常在某些动词后面作宾语。
常见的可以接这种不定式短语的动词有：
know, see, decide, tell,ask,consider,discover,explain,findout,forget,guess,hear,imagine,inquire, learn,observe,perceive,remember,think,understand,wonder等。
【例如】
I couldnt decide which book to choose. I can tell youswheresto get this book.They found it hard to decide whether to go swimming next Sunday or to visit Aunt Sally in New Year."whword+不定式"结构除了作宾语外，还可以在句中作主语或者表语。
【例如】
When to start the program remains undecided. The question is how to put the plansintospractice.
5)不定式作状语
a)不定式作状语表示目的。或用于so as和in order之后，来强调这种目的。
【例如】
To learn a foreign language well, you must make painstaking efforts.
Mother saved every cent she could spare to pay for my schooling.We must develop science and technology at high speed so as to raise scientific and cultural level of our country.
Insgroupsto get a high mark in Band 4, he did a lot of exercises both in grammar and reading comprehension.
b)不定式表示结果，特别是在so...as to, such...as to, only to...以及too...to等结构中的不定式表示结果。
【例如】
I rushed to the station as fast as I could, only to find the train already gone.
She left her hometown with her beloved man, never to return.No one is too old to learn.
Would you be so kind as to carry the luggage for me?
c)不定式常用来修饰形容词，构成下列词组：be able to, be afraid to, be apt to, be bound to, be certain to, be easy to, be eager to, be fit to, be likely to, be ready to, be sure to, be unable to, be unwilling to, be willing to等。
【例如】
Chinese team is bound to win the World Cup.
It is likely to rain today, for it is very cloudy.
I am willing to help you with your homework, for we are friends.
6)不定式作宾语补语不定式常跟在下列动词之后作宾语补语：ask, advise, allow, beg, cause, compel, command, enable, encourage, expect, feel, force, find, hear, have, inform, invite, let, make, mean, notice, order, permit, persuade, remind, require, request, teach, tell, urge, watch, warn, watch等。
【例如】
Because of the complexity of the modern equipments, most offices require secretaries to have specified training.
He asked you to call him at ten oclock.
The note reminds me to be careful whatever I do.
Id never allow my children to behave like that.
当不定式在let, make, have, hear, look at, listen to, feel, observe, watch, notice, perceive(感觉到)等动词后面作宾语补语时，不定式不带to.
【例如】
Whenever something is wrong with you, please do let me know.
I will have the students write a passage about Internet.
I saw my mother shed tears at the news that the neighbor girl got seriously hurt in a car accident.
It seemed so long before he heard the stone hit the water.
7)不定式作主补带有宾语及宾语补足语结构的动词变为被动语态时，原来的宾语变为主语，宾补则变为主补。加主补的动词主要有：assume, believe, know, report, say, suppose等。
【例如】
Mr. Brown is said to have left for Italy last week.(It is said that Mr. Brown left for Italy last week.)
Persons have been said to climb on roofs, solve mathematical problems, compose music, walk through windows and commit murder in their sleep.
He is reported to have won the 100meter running race in the Olympic games.
8)不定式作定语
a)不定式作定语通常要放在其所修饰的名词或代词之后。
不定式常作下列的名词定语：attempt, ability, anything, chance, desire, determination, decision, effort, failure, intention, need, opportunity, plan, promise, pressure, right, tendency, time, way等。
【例如】
His efforts to carry out the plan were successful.I have no intention to go to the cinema with you.
There is no need to bother him with such trifles.
There is a tendency to writer quite long sentences in commercial correspondence.
The pressure( )causes Americans to be energetic, but it also put them under a constant emotional strain. (CET-4 1997,6)
A) to compete
B) competing
C) to be competed
D)shavingscompeted
pressure后面应接后置定语，表示竞争的压力。单个分词作定语一般置于名词前，故B和D可以排除。C为不定式的被动式，而竞争和压力之间没有被动关系，因此正确答案为A。
特别注意的是在不定式与其修饰的名词有动宾关系时，要根据句子的需要在不定式后加适当的介词，这个介词的选用取决于被修饰的名词或不定式本身的要求。
【例如】
She is a very nice person to work with.
This is an important issue to talk about.
b)由only, last, next,序数词或形容词最高级修饰的名词常用不定式作定语。
【例如】
Mr. Zhang is always the first man to arrive at the office and the last man to leave.I dont think he is the best one to do the work.
9)不带to的不定式在下列词组后面的不定式不带to：would rather ...than(宁愿......也不), had better...(最好)，cant help but...(不得不), had rather...(宁愿)，cannot but...(不得不，必然)，may/might as well...(不妨)，let alone(更不用说)。
【例如】
Youd better return the books to the library on time. Otherwise, you will be fined.
I cant help but wish that nothing would go wrong.
They had never seen such delicious food, let alone eat it.
及物动词的用法
在英语错误中，"及物动词＋介词＋宾语"（transitive verb+preposition+object），是常见的一种。所谓及物动词，就是谓语动词（predicative verb），不必通过介词引荐宾语。相反的，不及物动词（intransitive verb）是不带宾语的。有许多动词，虽然性质是及物的，但不一定要有宾语，如下列的①a和②a便是这种情形：
①a. We study every day.
b. Do you study English every day.
②a. Please write clearly next time.
b. Can you write your composition now?
如果本质上就是不及物动词，就不会有宾语；若要宾语，就要借介词之助，一起连用才行，如③b和④b;③a和④a是错的；
*③a. The children are listening the music.
b. The children are listening to the music.
*④a. She is laughing the crippled man.
b. She is laughing at the crippled man.
反之，及物动词不必靠介词，就可以带宾语，如上述的①b和②b ，又如⑤和 ⑥：
⑤ John is giving a book to me.
⑥ Who will answer this question?
如果无意中把介词加上，就错了，如：
*⑦ Who will answer to this question?
下列这句从房地产广告中看到的句子，也犯了同样的错：
"We have many buyers awaiting for available units here."
"Awaiting"是个及物动词，后面的介词"for"是多余的，要去掉；不然把"awaiting"改为"waiting for"也行。
许多人习惯上喜欢把介词加到及物动词后面，然后才带出宾语。最常见的是"emphasize/stress on/upon"和"discuss about"，如：
⑧ Singaporeans seem to have emphasized on material gains.
⑨ In our education system, we stress upon examination results.
⑩ World leaders spent a lot of time discussing about worsening economic problems.
显然的，这三句里的介词"on/upon"和"about"是多余的，不必要的。
下面是些类似的错误：
● The young must obey to their elders.
● Do not approach to that odd-looking man.
● The audience attacked on the rude speaker.
● Nothing can escape from his parents eyes.
● Do you hope to serve for your nation?
● When did Susan marry with Paul?
介词"to, on, from, for, with"都要去掉才对。
为什么会有这些错误呢？主因是分不清楚及物动词和不及物动词的性质。其次，就是对同一个动词及其名词的句型有些混淆。解决之道有二。第一，要把"及物动词＋宾语"和"不及物动词＋介词＋宾语"划分清楚，如：
I did not answer him./ I did not reply to him.
He reached Londan yesterday./ He arrived in London yesterday.
第二，把及物动词转化为名词，然后加上适当的介词和宾语，如：
Dont approach such a person.
Is oral practice a good approach to language teaching?
清楚，如：
I did not answer him./ I did not reply to him.
He reached Londan yesterday./ He arrived in London yesterday.
第二，把及物动词转化为名词，然后加上适当的介词和宾语，如：
Dont approach such a person.
Is oral practice a good approach to language teaching?
ought to与 must,have to以及should的比较
ought to与 must,have to以及should的比较
A.ought to表示主语的义务或责任，但不象must那样牵涉到说话人的权威,也不像have to那样牵涉到外界权威。说话人仅仅提醒主语注意其义务，或提出劝告，或指出一个正确、明智的行为。ought to通常不重读。
should同ought to的用法完全相同。问句或说话中用ought to的时候，可以用should来回答：
A:You ought to/should finish your work before going out.你在出去之前应该做完你的工作。
B:I know I should.我知道我应该。
You ought to obey your parents.你应当听从父母的话。
A:You oughtnt to eat between meals;it will make you fat.你不应当 吃零食，否则你会发胖的。
B:I know I oughtnt to.我知道我不应该。
ought to与have to和must相比较：
You have to obey Mr Pitt.你得服从皮特先生。（皮特先生坚持这一点）。
You must obey Mr Pitt.你必须服从皮特先生。（说话人坚持或赞同皮特先生的权威）。
Tom,you ought to obey Mr Pitt. 汤姆，你应当服从皮特先生。（这里既不是说话人的权威，也不是皮特 先生的权威，但说话人认为服从皮特先生是可取的或者是汤姆的部分义务）。
You have to take these white pills.你得服这些白色药片。（医生坚持这一点）
You mustnt drink this;it is poison.你不能喝这东西，这是毒药。
You oughtnt to smoke so much;you are wasting your money.你不应该抽那么多烟；你在浪费钱。
B.像must一样，ought to也可用来提出劝告，但远不如must有力：
You ought to go to Pairs（你应当去巴黎）远不如You must go to Pairs（你一定要去巴黎）语气强。
wish虚拟结构
wish虚拟结构
动词wish后跟宾语从句，表示说话人的愿望，这个愿望在说话当时没有实现，有时根本不能实现，例如：
I wish I were a professor. 但愿我是个教授。（说话之时，愿望并没有实现，但不一定永远不能实现。）
I wish I were a bird.但愿我是一只鸟。（这个愿望永远不能实现。）
wish后从句的动词用过去时，表示现在存在的愿望或憾事，例如：
I wish I remember his name.要是记得他叫什么就好了。（实际上我现在没记住他的名字。）
wish后从句的动词用过去完成式，表示某些已经发生，说话人认为是一种遗憾，但愿该事没有发生过，例如：
I wish she hadnt left.要是她没离开该多好啊！
I wish you had made a mistake on this matter.在这件事上，我多么希望是你搞错了呀！
wish本身用现在时还是过去时，对从句的谓语没有影响，只说明说话人表达愿望的时间，例如：
He wished he knew her.他当时想：要认识她就好了。（实际上：He did not know her.He wanted to know her.表达他过去的愿望。）
比较：
I wish I knew her.我要认识她就好了。（次句只表达我现在的愿望。）
He wished he had not come.他当时认为要是没有来就好了。（实际上，他早已来此，只不过是后悔不该来。）
for和beacause
for和beacause
这两个连词含义非常接近，经常互换使用。然而用较为稳妥，因为由for引出的从句（我们把它叫做for从句）与由引出的从句相比，使用上有局限性。
1）for从句不能放在它所说明的动词前面，例如：
Because it was wet he took a taxi.（此处不能用for）因为下雨，他要了一辆出租汽车。
2）for从句前不能有not,but或任何连词，例如：
He stole,not because he wanted the money but because he liked stealing.（此处不能用for）他进行偷窃并不是因为他需要钱，而是因为他喜欢进行偷窃活动。
3）for不能用于回答问题，例如：
Why did you do it? I did it because I was angry.（此处不能用for）你当时为什么这么干？我这样干是因为我生气。
4）for从句不能单纯重复已经讲过的内容，经常包括一些新的内容，例如：
He spoke in French. She was angry because he had spoken in French.（此处不能用for）他讲法语，她因为他讲法语而生气了。
但She was angry, for she didnt know French.（此处用for是对的，但也可以用because）她生气，因 为她不懂法语。
产生这些限制的原因是for从句并不说明行为发生的原因，仅提供一些有助于说明这一原因的补充内容。
有关for从句的一些例子：
The days were short,for it was now December.白天短了，因为现在已经是十二月了。
He took the food eagerly, for he had eaten nothing since dawn.他狼吞虎咽地吃，因为他从清早起什么也没吃。
When I saw her in the river I was frightened. For at that point the currents were dangerous.当我看到她在河里是我吓坏了。因为在那个地方水流湍急险恶。
在口语中通常在for从句前停顿片刻。在书面语中这种停顿常用逗点来表示。有时象上面最后一句那样，用句点表示。
在上述这几句中for用较好，但也可以用because
关系从句中逗点的重要性
要记住限定性关系从句中不使用逗点。请注意句中加上逗点以后在意思上的变化：
（1）The travellers who knew about the floods took another road.知道道路被淹的那些旅客改道走了。
（2）The travellers, who knew about the floods,took another road.旅客们知道道路被淹都改道走了。
在（1）中有一个限定性关系从句，它对名词'travellers'的性质作了一个限制。这个句子的意思是"只有那些知道道路被淹的旅客改道走了"，而那 些不知道这一情况的旅客仍走上了现已被淹的道路。在（2）中有一个非限定性关系从句，它对面前的名词没有起任何限制作用，这句的意思是"旅客们都知道道路 被淹并改道走了"。
The boys who wanted to play football were disppointed when it rained. 希望踢足球的那些男孩因为下雨而感到失望。
The boys,who wanted to play football,were disappointed when it rained. 那些男孩都想踢足球，他们都因下雨感到失望。
第一句的意思是其中只有一部分孩子希望踢足球，可能另一些对于下不下雨感到不在乎。第二句的意思是所有的孩子都想踢足球，并都感到失望。
The wine which was in the cellar was all ruined.地窖里的那些酒全都坏了。
The wine, which was in the cellar,was all ruined.酒放在地窖里，全变坏了。
第一句意味着只有一些酒变坏了，另一些放在别处的酒没有坏；第二句表示所有的酒都放在地窖里而且全都变坏了。
虚拟语气
虚拟语气是一种动词形式，表示说话人的一种愿望，假设，怀疑，猜测， 建议等含义，虚拟语气所表示的含义不是客观存在的事实。
If I were you, I'd take them away.
如果我是你的话，我就会带走他们。
If I had met Li Hua, I could had told him.
如果我碰见了李华，我就告诉了他了。
If I had time. I could come to help you.
如果我有时间，我会来帮助你的。
He suggested that our class should be divided into five groups.
他建议说我们的班应该分成五个小组。
He speaks to us as if he had been there.
他给我们讲的好象他去过那儿。
虚拟语气的用法
1) 虚拟语气用在简单句中，表示祝愿，命令。
May you be happy.
祝你幸福。
May you have a good time.
祝愿你玩的痛快。
May the friendship between us last long.
祝愿我们的友情天长地久。
Have a good journey!
祝愿你旅途愉快！
You go out！
你出去！
2) 虚拟语气用在宾语从句中。动词 wish, suggest,order,insist, propose,等词后面的宾语从句表示的是一种虚拟语气， 宾语从句中的动词动作表示的只是一种愿望，要求。
I wish she would be on my side.
我希望她能站在我一边。
I wish I could help him.
我希望我能帮助他。
He insisted that all of us should be there on time by any means.
他坚持要我们大家想尽办法按时去那儿。
动词 demand, suggest, order, insist, propose 后面的从句中，'should' 可以省略。
The teacher suggested that we (should) clean the blackboard after class.
老师建议我们课后把黑板擦了。
He ordered that the students wash the clothes every week by themselves.
他要求学生每周都要自己洗衣服。
3) 虚拟语气用在主语从句中。
在句型 'It is important (necessary, strange, natural) that .... ' 中，that 后面的从句中的谓语动词用： should + 动词原形
It's necessary that we should have a walk now.
我们有必要出去散散步。
It's natural that she should do so.
她这样做是很自然的。
It's important that we should take good care of the patient.
重要的是我们要照顾好病人。
4) 虚拟语气用在状语从句中。
虚拟语气最多地用在表示条件的状语从句和表示结果的主句中。在表示与事实相反的虚拟语气时，动词有三种时态形式，即现在，过去和将来。
与现在事实相反的：
条件从句 结果从句
If I (we,you,he,they)+ 动词过去式.. if I (he,she) were... I (we) should + 动词原形。 He (you,they) would + 动词原形。
与过去事实相反的：
条件从句 结果从句
If I(we,you,he,they)+ had + 过去分词 I(we)should + have+ 过去分词。He (you,they) would + have + 过去分词。
If I were you, I should buy it.
如果我是你，我就买了它。
If I had time, I would study French.
如果我有时间，我会学习法语的。
If she knew English,she would not ask me for help.
如果她懂英语的话，她不会找我帮忙的。
If you had got up earlier, you could have caught the train.
如果你早一点起床，就会赶上火车的。
If it were fine tomorrow,I would go shopping.
如果明天天气好，我就去买东西。
有关虚拟语气的几个问题：
1) 有时if引导的状语从句可以省略 if，而把从句中的动词 were, had 或 should 移到主语前面。
Were she younger, she would do it .
如果她年青点， 她就会干的。
Had he known her address, he would had gone to visite her.
如果他知道她的地址，他会去看她的。
2) 有时表示虚拟语气的条件从句或者主句都可以省略，而只剩下一个主句或者一个条件从句。
I could help you.
我本来可以帮助你。
If I had time.
我要有时间该多好啊。
She should have come to the party.
她应该来参加聚会。
If he had much more money.
如果他有更多的钱就能...。
3) 虚拟语气中，条件从句的动词动作可以和主句的动词动作时态不一致。
If they had studied hard, they could do it easily now.
如果他们以前努力学习的话，现在干的就会容易些。
If he had not taken my advice, he wouldn't do it much better like this.
如果他不听取我的建议，他就不会干得这样好
代词"it"的一般用法
简简单单一个代词IT真是神通广大，用途多多，其功力比其他任何代词都庞大。
从中文立场看，好些无主语的句子，在译成英文时，都非请IT协助不可。例如：
①是这样！（That's it!）
②没办法。（It can't be helped.）
③轮到我了。（It is my turn.）
④事实上，我们可以打败他们。（As it is, we can beat them.）
⑤离开这里不远。（It is not far from here.）
⑥只要一块钱。（It is only one dollar.）
⑦这儿真热。（It is so hot here!）
此外，"it"还有下列五种用法：
⒈代替上文提到的事物或情况，如：
Look up the word in the dictionary if it is difficult to you.
I would appreciate it if you could do me a favour.
⒉代替没生命的东西，如：
Here is a plastic box. It is useful.
Don't throw the old newspaper away; you may need it.
⒊代替普通动物，如：
The dog outside belongs to the owner of the house. It is very fierce.
Look at the cat! Isn't it furry?
指大动物，如马、大象等或指人们心爱的宠物，如猫、狗等时，可用"he"或"she"，而不用"it"；故事中的动物便是个例子，如：
When the children saw a horse coming, they stopped and looked at him.
A cow is grazing grass in the field. She looks very strong.
⒋用来指天气、日期、季节、时刻、距离等，如：
It is raining outside. Don't go out!
It is the 20th of December.
Time flies! It is vacation again.
It was half past five when Jason got up.
It is very far from the school to the market.
It is only a short distance to the library.
⒌可以指性别不详的婴儿，及已知的事实，如：
The baby next door kept me awake. It cried loudly.
Yes, I was at home last night. What about it?
When the company closes down, it (i.e. this event) will affect some staff's future.
⒍可以用来强调句子的某部分，如：
I respect David. It is he that has made the department what it is now. （强调主语）
It is Mandarin that Janet has failed to pick up. (强调宾语)
It is only recently that she has embarked on the learning of Mandarin.（强调副词"recently"）
从上述例子看，代词IT的功用，不仅在代替单数的事物和动物等，还可以协助强调句子成分以及在中英翻译中协助中文无主句的英译。
"it"做主语
当主语冗长或复杂时，在条件允许的情况下，可把它移到句子后面，由IT来充当临时主语。这里所谓冗长或复杂的主语，指的是不定式动词（to-infinitive）或不定式动词短语（infinitive phrase）。下面六种情况，不用IT是不行的：
Ⅰ. 和接系动词"Be"连用，如：
● It is wrong to ill-treat your inferiors.
● It was a mistake for you to dismiss an innocent worker.
Ⅱ. 和接系动词"seem, appear, feel, sound"等连用，如：
● It seems a pity to waste time like that.
● It appears unlikely for William to come on time.
● It sounds reasonable to work five days a week.
Ⅲ. 和带"for"或"of"短语的不定式动词连用，如：
● It is very kind of you to help me at this time.
● It might not be a bad idea for young graduates to work abroad for some time.
Ⅳ. 和"suffice, do, remain"等动词连用，如：
● It suffices to say it in this way.
● It will do for students to give short answers.
● It remains to look for a suitable place to teach the special course.
Ⅴ. 和"require, need, take, cost, amuse, delight, irritate, irk, annoy, make"等及物动词连用，如：
● It requires more staff to carry out this plan.
● It needs a lot of patience to perform such a task.
● It took the maid one hour to clean up the whole apartment.
● It cost her $200 to see a specialist doctor.
● It greatly amused us to see the old man sing.
● It delighted the audience to listen to Helen's jokes.
● It irritated Tom to be asked to do the work all over again.
● It irked Betty to have to admit the mistake made.
● It annoyed me to realise how much time had been wasted.
● It made the staff excited to learn about the company's expansion programme.
Ⅵ. 和被动语态连用，如
● It is felt worth while to read that book again.
● It was considered necessary to have new courses introduced.
此外，IT也可以取代动名词（gerund）或动名词短语（gerund phrase）为主语，然后把真主语移到句尾。这种情况下的IT常和"no good, no use/useless, worth while"等连用，如：
● It is no good pretending to be knowledgeable.
● It is no use discussing things with him.
● It is useless our losing temper with such a person.
● It is worth while learning more than a language.
"It"也时常和"hard, fun, an awful job"等词语连用，如：
● It is hard walking with a heavy parcel.
● It is fun playing games with children.
● It is an awful job teaching those not interested in the subject.
-句式中的动名词短语可以由不定式动词短语取代：
● It is hard to walk with a heavy parcel.
● It is fun to play games with children.
● It is an awful job to teach those not interested in the subject
"it"做宾语
上一期谈到IT可以取代不定式动词短语和动名词短语而成为句子的主语。神通广大的IT也可以代替它们成为句子中的宾语。所谓宾语（the object），就是出现在及物动词后头的名词，代词或名词性的语文成分。
作为宾语的IT，通常和下列动词连用：
consider, think, make, find, believe, count, declare, deem, fancy, feel, guess, imagine, judge, prove, see, show, suppose, understand, take等。例如：
● We consider it our duty to support good leaders.
● I think it best to get along well with others.
● The new method makes it possible to complete the task faster.
● Tom found it very embarrassing to be reminded of the long-standing debt.
● Susan deemed it advisable to keep the matter secret.
● We all feel it nice to be able to visit that distinguished university.
● Who can prove it wrong to have a 'make-money-quick' mentality?
这些IT句型的不定式动词短语前头，也可套上"for"的片语，如：
● Many Chinese here find it necessary for them to have a better command of Chinese.
● They thought it desirable for English to be accurately used.
● Such a plan makes it possible for older workers to be re-trained as useful staff.
当上述句子以被动语态出现时，更非借重IT的句型不可，如：
● It can be made possible for the lost time to be recovered.
● It is considered disgraceful for a distinguished guest not to stay in a high-class hotel.
最后，IT也必须在这些惯用语中出现：
Take...in turns; leave...to; owe...to; take...upon oneself to，如：
● Can you do all together? I think you have to take it in turns.
● I will leave it to you to assign the duties to the staff.
● Paul owed it to Susan to explain the matter.
● How can John take it upon himself to do all the chores?
除了不定式动词短语之外，IT也可以代替动名词与动名词短语成为句子的宾语。例如：
● I do not consider it worthwhile spending too much time on telephone conversation.
● She found it troublesome having to go through all the red tape.
● Peggie deemed it tedious writing two or three drafts for an English composition.
● We suppose it pointless talking to a boss blind to his own faults.
● Do you think it useful changing for the sake of changing?
动词"be"的语法作用
英语的"be"是个特别动词；有些语言，如中文和马来文，并没有"be"这样的动词。
"Be"除了原形的"be"之外，还有另外七种形式：am, is, are, been, being, was, were.
在句子中，"be"可以是主动词(The Principal Verb)或助动词(The Auxiliary Verb).
当主动词时，"be"在性质上属于接系动词(The Linking Verb), 后面要有名词、形容词、地方副词或短语作补足语(The Complement)。例如：
1. The man is a science teacher.
2. Mary's new dresses are colourful.
3. I have been there before.
4. Mother is in the kitchen now.
这四个都是陈述句，可以变成疑问句，方法简单，把主语和"be"或助动词对换位置即可：
5. Is the man a science teacher?
6. Are Mary's new dresses colourful?
7. Have I been there before?
8. Is mother in the kitchen now?
当"be"要在祈使句中出现时，它必须借重助动词"do"或"don't"之助，如：
9. Don't be silly!
10. Do be obedient!
11. Don't be a fool!
"Be"有两种缩写法，如下：
12. He's not...../He isn't....
13. You're not...../You aren't...
但"am + not"的缩写法只有一个：
14. I'm not.
有人用"ain't", 但这并不是标准英语。
谈过了"be"作主动词的功能，现在看看"be"作助动词时，有些什么用法：
1."Be + 现在分词"以组成进行式时态(Continuous Tenses)，如：
15. Tony's maid is washing his new car.
16. The children are playing in the field.
17. Samuel was eating when I came in.
18. We have been living here since 1959.
2."Be + 过去分词"以组成被动语态(The Passive Voice),如：
19. Her money in the drawer was stolen.
20. A number of good jobs are taken up byforeigners.
21. David studied in Taiwan but has been trained as a language lecturer in America.
22. Can all the wonderful birds be found in our Bird Park?
23. The disobedient boy was told to stand out- side the classroom.
24. Steps are being taken to reduce traffic con- gestion during peak hours.
25. Dishonest students will be immediately dealt with.
从上面例子看，"be"这动词外貌平凡，但内涵丰厚。如果没有"be"，补足语的桥梁断了。如果没有"be",何来进行式时态和被动语态？缺了这几样重要的句式，英语还像英语吗？
let引导的祈使句
由'let'带头的祈使句(Imperative Sentences)是个常见的动词句型，它的主要用法有下列三种：
1.表示"建议"。
这个句型里的'let'后头紧跟着一个第一人称的代词宾语，如：
(1) Let me try.
(2) Let's do it.
(3) Let me go and look for it.
这个句型语气委婉，比直接的祈使句客气。试比较(4)a和(4)b:
(4) a. Don't disturb him.
b. Let's not disturb him.
(a)是直接命令，语气强烈，不如(b)温柔悦耳。
2.表示"间接命令"或"愿望"。
这句型里的动词宾语是第三人称名词或代词，如：
(5) Let Robert take charge of the marketing department.
(6) Let her join our choir.
3.表示"警告"、"蔑视"、"威胁"等。
这种祈使句里的宾语也是第三人称为主。除了口气凶悍之外，有时还语带讽刺，如：
(7) Let him try and he will expose his inability to work on his own.
(8) Let the invaders come and our armed forces will wipe them out in no time.
用'let'的祈使句时，必须注意下列几点：
一、'let' 的否定句有二。如果宾语是第三人称用'Don't let.....'（见例(9)）；如果宾语是第一人称，则用'Let......not' （见例(10)）：
(9) Don't let this type of things happen again.
(10) It's raining now. Let's not go out until after the rain.
二、'Let'只适用于现在时态，可以有被动语态 (the passive voice)，如：
(11) Let the recalcitrant criminals be sent to prison.
(12) Let all the dedicated capable staff be promoted.
三、'Let'后头除了是不带'to'的不定式动词 (The infinitive without'to')之外，还可以是某些适当的副词，如out, in, down, alone等：
(13) Let the puppy out.
(14) Open the windows and let the fresh air in.
(15) The room is too sunny. Let the blinds down.
(16) Let me alone, please.
四、用'Let's'时，把谈话者的对象包括在内；用'Let us'时，并不包括对方，如：
(17) Let's try it, shall we?
(18) Let us do it by ourselves, will you?
从(17)里的'shall we'和(18)里的'will you'，不难知道前者包括听话人，后者并没有。
倒装句的种类
当主语在谓语前出现时叫顺序（the natural order）。在某些情况下，我们可以把谓语成分放在主语前面，这种词序叫做倒装（ the inverted order）。
倒装分两种：配合语法条例的倒装，叫"grammatical inversion"；配合强调语势的叫"emphatic inversion"。
语法上的倒装句是强制性的，包括下列 7 种：
⒈疑问句，如：
● Can you do it?
● How old are you?
● When did you know him?
● Why did you elect him as captain?
● Which of these apples do you prefer?
但疑问代词做主语时，不必倒置，如：
● Who is your English teacher?
● What happened last night?
⒉表示"愿望"的句子，如：
● May God bless you.
● Long live the king!
⒊"There"引导的句子，如：
● There are many cars on the road.
● There stand some big trees near the river.
● There is a security guard outside the bank.
⒋感叹句，如：
● How beautiful the flower is!
● What a smart boy you are!
⒌有连接词"so, neither, nor"的句子，如：
● Tom can ride a bicycle; so can I.
● She can't sing; neither can he.
● John has never been late; nor have I.
⒍省略连词"if"的条件副词分句，如：
● Were I you, I would not do such a thing.
● Should the machine break down again, send it back to us.
● Had you worked harder, you would have passed.
⒎"as, however"连接的让步副词分句，如：
● Small as the pen is, it is a powerful weapon.
● However busy you are, you should spend some time reading Zaobao weekly.
谈过了语法上的倒装句，现在谈强调的倒装句。例如：-里把表示否定的副词或副词短语提到句前；-是把副词虚助词提前：
● Never have I seen such a wicked man.
● On no account must this employee be removed.
● Not until he told me had I heard anything of it.
● No sooner had I left than the rain came.
● Up jumped the puppy.
● In came John.
● Down fell the rotten branches from the tree.
● Out came a woman and her maid.
副词分句
在英语三种分句中，副词分句种类最多，用途最广。就其功用或意义说，副词分句可以用来表示"时间、原因、条件、让步、地点、目的、结果、方式、比较"等。
时间副词分句由从属连词 when, since, before, after, while, as soon as 等引导。例如：
● Give me a call when you are free.
● Jim had done his homework before he went to class.
● As soon as the speaker entered the auditorium, the audience clapped.
原因副词分句由从属连词 because, since, as 等引导。例如：
● Helen got the job because she was the most suitable candidate.
● As he was tired, he went to bed early.
条件副词分句由从属连词 if, unless 等引导。例如：
● If you try hard, you are sure to improve.
● We will leave as planned unless we are informed otherwise.
让步副词分句由从属连词 though, although 等引导。例如：
● Though David was not well, he came to work as usual.
● I enjoy walking although I do not go out as much as I used to.
地点副词分句由从属连词 where, wherever 等引导。例如：
● Where there is oppression, there is resistance.
● In today's world, you can go wherever you want.
目的副词分句由从属连词 so that, in order that 等引导。例如：
● Please speak louder, so that all can hear you.
● The students work hard in order that they can pass.
结果副词分句由从属连词 so...that, such...that 等引导。例如：
● The weather is so hot that I don't like to go out of doors.
● China is such a large country that it takes time to make it a fully developed nation.
方式副词分句由从属连词 as, just as...so 等引导。例如：
● We will do as we are told.
● Just as men sow, so will they reap.
比较副词分句由从属连词 as, than 等引导。例如：
● Dick is as smart as you (are).
● We know you better than he does.
这里有几点要注意。第一、当副词分句在句首出现时，要用逗号和主句隔开。第二、习惯上，先出现的分句的主语要用名词，后出现的用代词，如：
Before John went out, he locked the door.
第三、有些副词分句可以在句首，就最好把它们放在句首，主句在后。这样可以使人更注意主句中的内容，达到较好的传讯效益。例如：
a. Tom was absent as he was ill.
b. As Tom was ill, he was absent.
a. The boys ran home when it rained.
b. When it rained, the boys ran home.
a. You will do well if you surge ahead.
b. If you surge ahead, you will do well.
a. Betty did not get the job though she was interviewed.
b. Though Betty was interviewed, she did not get the job.
形容词的位置
形容词的位置及其在句中的排列次序，都有语法准则可遁，不可随心所欲，恣意安插。
在每个英语句子中，如果形容词位置错了或一句中几个连续性的形容词排列不正确的话，便会有错误，甚至意思也跟着改变。
一般上说，形容词的位置是紧贴在被修饰的名词前面；不然的话，就跟在接系动词（linking verb）后面充当补足语（complement）。例如：
① Sam is an industrious professional designer.
② What is it that bulky box? May I know?
③ Homeless cats are seen wandering about the field.
④ David looks cheerful everyday.
⑤ Janet is being nasty today.
⑥ The sky suddenly turned dark.
①-③里的形容词修饰它们后头的名词；④-⑥里的形容词是补足语。
下面要讨论的不是形容词的正常位置，而是在各种特殊情况下所处的特殊位置。这些特殊情况，主要有下列七种：
㈠形容词被其他词语修饰时，便要跟在所修饰的名词后面，如：
⑦ This hole←large←enough for a dog to pass through must be blocked up.
⑧ Don't throw away that filing cabinet←big←enough to keep all the old documents.
㈡两个意思相反的形容词并用时，也是要跟在被修饰的名词后面，如：
⑨ We should be fair to all people, big and small, young and old.
㈢形容词修饰"anything, something, nothing, everything" 等代名词时，也要在后头出现，如：
⑩ There is nothing funny about it.
11. Something important has been found.
㈣在某些固定的词语中，形容词在名词后头出现，如：
12. Military offenders will be sued in the court-martial. （军事法庭）
13. The sum total （总数） of his teaching experience is two years as a relief teacher in a secondary school.
14. Since time immemorial （太古时代）, human beings have fought for survival.
㈤在某些口语中，形容词也跟在被修饰的名词之后，如：
15. On Sunday last （上星期日）；16. On Monday next （下星期一）；17. Volume one （第一卷）；18. Chaper two （第二章）； 19. Page three （第三页）。
㈥有时，为了加强句子语气，形容词可以放在句首，如：
20. Brave he may be, but he is not a good soldier.
21. Old though Jane is, she is healthy and energetic.
㈦另一种强调方法，是把意义相吸的几个形容词贯串起来，放在名词之后，如：
22. Once upon a time, there lived a grey-haired king, hale and hearty.
23. The editor was a scientiest, original, sagacious and inventive.
怎样区别现在完成时和现在完成进行时
现在让我们来比较一下现在完成时和现在完成进行时。在比较这两个时态时，关键在于对现在完成进行时的基本概念是否理解，因为对于现在完成时我们已经有了一个基本的理解了。
现在完成进行时是一兼有现在完成时和现在进行时二者基本特点的时态。由于它有现在完成时的特点，所以它可以表示某一动作对现在产生的结果或影响。由于它有现在进行时的特点，所以它也可以表示某一动作的延续性、临时性、重复性、生动性乃至感情色彩。
现在就现在完成进行时的这些特点和现在完成时作一简单的比较：
（1）现在完成进行时和现在完成时皆可表示动作对现在产生的结果，但前者所表示的结果是直接的，而后者所表示的则是最后的结果。如：
We have heen cleaning the classroom．（a）
We have cleaned the classroom．（b）
（a）句可译为"我们打扫教室来着。"其直接结果可能是：我们身上都是灰。（b）句可以译为"我们把教室打扫过了。"其结果是：现在教室很清洁，可以用了。又，（a）句表示教室刚刚打扫过，（b）句则可能表示教室是昨天打扫的。
Be careful! John has been painting the door．（a）
John has painted the door．（b）
（a）句表示约翰刚刚把门油漆过，现在油漆还未干，所以你要小心。（b）句则无此含义，油漆可能已干了。
（2）现在完成进行时有时有延续性，现在完成时往往没有。如：
They have been widening the road．（a）
They have widened the road．（b）
（a）句的意思是他们在加宽马路，但尚未完工。（b）句的意思则是已完工了。有时现在完成时有延续性（如一些属于持续体的动词），但无临时性质。如：
Mr. Smith has been living in London since 1978．（a）
Mr. Smith has lived in London since 1979．（b）
（a）句有"史密斯先生在伦敦久居"的含义，（b）句则没有。
（3）但现在完成进行时并不总是具有临时的性质，如：
My mother has been teaching English for twenty years．（a）
My mother has taught English for twenty years.（b）
（a）句在此并无临时性质，但较口语化。（b）句则较为正式。又，（a）句表示动作现在仍在继续．并将延续下去，（b）句的动作是否延续下去，须由上下文决定，但在一般情况下都是延续下去的。
（4）现在完成进行时往往表示动作在重复，现在完成时则常常不带重复性。如：
Have you been meeting her lately？（a）
Have you met her lately？（b）
（a）句有"经常相会"之意，（b）句则没有。（b）句如与often，every day等时间状语连用，当然也表示动作在重复。
（5）现在完成进行时比较生动，有时含有明显的感情色彩，而现在完成时往往只说明一个事实，一种影响或结果，平铺直叙，没有什么感情色彩可言。如：
What have you been doing？（a）
What have you done？（b）
（a）句表示惊异。（b）句只是一个问题。
Have you been waiting long？（a）
Have you waited long？（b）
（a）句较（b）句生动。又，（a）句比较口语化。
I have been wanting to meet you for long．（a）
I have long wanted to meet you．（b）
（a）句比（b）句更亲切，更有礼貌。
Recently Mary has been doing her work regularly．（a）
Recently Mary has done her work regularly．（b）
（a）句显然是在表扬玛丽。（b）只说明一个事实。
下面还有一例，颇为有趣:
Who's been eating my apples？（a）
Who's eaten my apples？（b）
（a）句有强烈的感情色彩，表示愤怒不满，（b）句只是希望回答的一个问题。又，（a）句兼有进行时态，所以有"苹果未被全部吃光"的意思，（b）句是完成时态，说明"苹果一个不剩了"。
（6）在否定结构中，现在完成时所否定的是谓语动词，现在完成进行时所否定的是状语。如：
He hasn't been speaking since three o'clock．（a）
He hasn't spoken since three o'clock．（b）
（a）句中所否定的不是has been speaking，而是 since three o'clock，其结构等于 He has been speaking not since three o'clock but since half past three．这是因为现在完成进行时本身是没有否定结构的原故。（b）句用的是现在完成时，而现在完成时是有否定结构的，所以（b）句中所否定的自然是 has spoken，意即"从三点起他一直沉默不语，未发一言"。
浅谈英语的否定转移
在学英语的过程中，学生常将这样的句子 '我认为这不是个好主意.' 译为'I think it isn't a good idea.' 而将这句英语译成汉语时，学生又会译为 '我不认为这是个好主意.' 老师又会说译错了，这不符合 'I don't think...' 句型，应译为 'l don't think it's a good idea.'
那么，这错误的根源究竟在哪里？这就是"英语的否定转移"在作怪。否定转移在非正式语体中特别常见，它是将语义上属于从属分句（一般为that clause）的否定词转移到母句中去。允许否定转移的母句动词在语义上可分为以下两组：
1．看法（OPINION）：anticipate，be supposed to，believe，calculate， expect，figure(infml，AmE),imagine, reckon (infml，esp, in AmE)，suppose，think:
Eg. I don't believe I've met you before.
('I believe I haven't met you before.')
Eg. She didn't imagine that we would say anything.
('She imagined we wouldn't say anything.')
Eg. He didn't expect to win.
('He expected not to win.')
2．感觉(PERCEPTION) appear，seem，feel as if，look as if，sound as if (后三个动词也作infml，esp， in AmE，其中用like来代替as if）：
Eg. It doesn't seem that we canget our money back.
'It seems that we can't get our money back.'
Eg. The baby doesn't appear to be awake.
('The baby appears not to be awake.')
Eg. It doesn't look like it's going to rain.
('It looks like it isn't going to rain.')
否定的转移是一种含糊的现象。对于否定词位置不同的两个句子，意思是否相同，或者在多大程度上相同的问题，各人的直觉可能是不同的。但在以下特殊情况下，原来允许否定转移的动词不能将否定转移：
1．I think是插入句，可看作与其他部分无关：
I wish you were here，then I think I should not feel like this.
2．母句中添加情态动词can't mustn't wouldn't时：
I can't believe that they are married.
You mustn't think he's stupid.
I wouldn't have imagined that Sandra would be here.
3．由于cannot helping，ought not，need not，not at all等短语的关系而把I think隔离。
I should have thought sometimes you couldn't help thinking of the past.
I think you ought not to walk at night alone，Mrs. Moore.
I think you need not be impolite to her，as well as to her son.
'I think the angel are not at all in heaven.' Mr.Esmond said.'
4. 由于not just... but， just not... enough，not much, not quite等以not为核心的副词短语的影响，也不便把否定拿到动词的前面去：
I think I'm just not smart enough to make any sense out of for you.
'You think she's not much like you? Brerald asked.
But I think that Elizabeth was not quite so certain of it as I.
句中含有no, never, nothing, nobody等的不定词时：
I should think you never have seen many.
I thought it explained nothing.
英语中的五个基本句型
1.英语的五个基本句型是理解句子结构的关键。
例如，在"主语+谓语动词+主语补足语"句型中，动词是连系动词。 The plums looked sweetly（A）, but（B）he could not eat（C）the fruit he had stolen（D）.（练习32页） 分析：look在此句中不是行为动词而是连系支词，故A需改为sweet。
2.在"主语+谓语动词"句型中，动词是不及物动词。 He rose（A）to speak（B）and was listened（C）with enthusiasm by the large audience（D）.（练习86页） 分析：listen是不及物动词，无被动语态，故C改为was listened to。
3.在"主语+谓语动词+宾语"句型中，动词是单宾语及物动词，必须带一个宾语，否则是错句。 It should bear（A）in mind that（B）there us great damage（C）to（D）the forests.（98年下试题） 分析：that引导主语从句，及物动词bear后无宾语，故A改为被动语态。
4.在"主语+谓语动词+间接宾语+直接宾语"句型中，动词是双宾语及物动词。 They tell me that he is at home.I ____________ ____________ that he is at home.（练习177页） 分析：一个宾语me可因被动语态变主语I，另一宾语仍在后面。故填am told。
5.在"主语+谓语动词+宾语+宾语补足语"句型中，动词是复合宾语及物动词。宾语后接宾语补足语，及物动词是否可带宾语补足语以及所带补足语的形式为动 词本身的特点所决定。 Don't get the boy ____________（frighten）into ____________（cry）.（99年下试题） 分析：根据frighten空格所需的被动意义和get可接过去分词做宾语补足语的特征填frightened和crying。
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